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|
#!/usr/bin/env python
'''
Python WebSocket server base with support for "wss://" encryption.
Copyright 2011 Joel Martin
Copyright 2016 Pierre Ossman
Licensed under LGPL version 3 (see docs/LICENSE.LGPL-3)
You can make a cert/key with openssl using:
openssl req -new -x509 -days 365 -nodes -out self.pem -keyout self.pem
as taken from http://docs.python.org/dev/library/ssl.html#certificates
'''
import os, sys, time, errno, signal, socket, select, logging
import multiprocessing
from http.server import SimpleHTTPRequestHandler
# Degraded functionality if these imports are missing
for mod, msg in [('ssl', 'TLS/SSL/wss is disabled'),
('resource', 'daemonizing is disabled')]:
try:
globals()[mod] = __import__(mod)
except ImportError:
globals()[mod] = None
print("WARNING: no '%s' module, %s" % (mod, msg))
if sys.platform == 'win32':
# make sockets pickle-able/inheritable
import multiprocessing.reduction
from websockify.websocket import WebSocketWantReadError, WebSocketWantWriteError
from websockify.websocketserver import WebSocketRequestHandlerMixIn
class CompatibleWebSocket(WebSocketRequestHandlerMixIn.SocketClass):
def select_subprotocol(self, protocols):
# Handle old websockify clients that still specify a sub-protocol
if 'binary' in protocols:
return 'binary'
else:
return ''
# HTTP handler with WebSocket upgrade support
class WebSockifyRequestHandler(WebSocketRequestHandlerMixIn, SimpleHTTPRequestHandler):
"""
WebSocket Request Handler Class, derived from SimpleHTTPRequestHandler.
Must be sub-classed with new_websocket_client method definition.
The request handler can be configured by setting optional
attributes on the server object:
* only_upgrade: If true, SimpleHTTPRequestHandler will not be enabled,
only websocket is allowed.
* verbose: If true, verbose logging is activated.
* daemon: Running as daemon, do not write to console etc
* record: Record raw frame data as JavaScript array into specified filename
* run_once: Handle a single request
* handler_id: A sequence number for this connection, appended to record filename
"""
server_version = "WebSockify"
protocol_version = "HTTP/1.1"
SocketClass = CompatibleWebSocket
# An exception while the WebSocket client was connected
class CClose(Exception):
pass
def __init__(self, req, addr, server):
# Retrieve a few configuration variables from the server
self.only_upgrade = getattr(server, "only_upgrade", False)
self.verbose = getattr(server, "verbose", False)
self.daemon = getattr(server, "daemon", False)
self.record = getattr(server, "record", False)
self.run_once = getattr(server, "run_once", False)
self.rec = None
self.handler_id = getattr(server, "handler_id", False)
self.file_only = getattr(server, "file_only", False)
self.traffic = getattr(server, "traffic", False)
self.web_auth = getattr(server, "web_auth", False)
self.host_token = getattr(server, "host_token", False)
self.logger = getattr(server, "logger", None)
if self.logger is None:
self.logger = WebSockifyServer.get_logger()
super().__init__(req, addr, server)
def log_message(self, format, *args):
self.logger.info("%s - - [%s] %s" % (self.client_address[0], self.log_date_time_string(), format % args))
#
# WebSocketRequestHandler logging/output functions
#
def print_traffic(self, token="."):
""" Show traffic flow mode. """
if self.traffic:
sys.stdout.write(token)
sys.stdout.flush()
def msg(self, msg, *args, **kwargs):
""" Output message with handler_id prefix. """
prefix = "% 3d: " % self.handler_id
self.logger.log(logging.INFO, "%s%s" % (prefix, msg), *args, **kwargs)
def vmsg(self, msg, *args, **kwargs):
""" Same as msg() but as debug. """
prefix = "% 3d: " % self.handler_id
self.logger.log(logging.DEBUG, "%s%s" % (prefix, msg), *args, **kwargs)
def warn(self, msg, *args, **kwargs):
""" Same as msg() but as warning. """
prefix = "% 3d: " % self.handler_id
self.logger.log(logging.WARN, "%s%s" % (prefix, msg), *args, **kwargs)
#
# Main WebSocketRequestHandler methods
#
def send_frames(self, bufs=None):
""" Encode and send WebSocket frames. Any frames already
queued will be sent first. If buf is not set then only queued
frames will be sent. Returns True if any frames could not be
fully sent, in which case the caller should call again when
the socket is ready. """
tdelta = int(time.time()*1000) - self.start_time
if bufs:
for buf in bufs:
if self.rec:
# Python 3 compatible conversion
bufstr = buf.decode('latin1').encode('unicode_escape').decode('ascii').replace("'", "\\'")
self.rec.write("'{{{0}{{{1}',\n".format(tdelta, bufstr))
self.send_parts.append(buf)
while self.send_parts:
# Send pending frames
try:
self.request.sendmsg(self.send_parts[0])
except WebSocketWantWriteError:
self.print_traffic("<.")
return True
self.send_parts.pop(0)
self.print_traffic("<")
return False
def recv_frames(self):
""" Receive and decode WebSocket frames.
Returns:
(bufs_list, closed_string)
"""
closed = False
bufs = []
tdelta = int(time.time()*1000) - self.start_time
while True:
try:
buf = self.request.recvmsg()
except WebSocketWantReadError:
self.print_traffic("}.")
break
if buf is None:
closed = {'code': self.request.close_code,
'reason': self.request.close_reason}
return bufs, closed
self.print_traffic("}")
if self.rec:
# Python 3 compatible conversion
bufstr = buf.decode('latin1').encode('unicode_escape').decode('ascii').replace("'", "\\'")
self.rec.write("'}}{0}}}{1}',\n".format(tdelta, bufstr))
bufs.append(buf)
if not self.request.pending():
break
return bufs, closed
def send_close(self, code=1000, reason=''):
""" Send a WebSocket orderly close frame. """
self.request.shutdown(socket.SHUT_RDWR, code, reason)
def send_pong(self, data=''.encode('ascii')):
""" Send a WebSocket pong frame. """
self.request.pong(data)
def send_ping(self, data=''.encode('ascii')):
""" Send a WebSocket ping frame. """
self.request.ping(data)
def handle_upgrade(self):
# ensure connection is authorized, and determine the target
self.validate_connection()
self.auth_connection()
super().handle_upgrade()
def handle_websocket(self):
# Indicate to server that a Websocket upgrade was done
self.server.ws_connection = True
# Initialize per client settings
self.send_parts = []
self.recv_part = None
self.start_time = int(time.time()*1000)
# client_address is empty with, say, UNIX domain sockets
client_addr = ""
is_ssl = False
try:
client_addr = self.client_address[0]
is_ssl = self.client_address[2]
except IndexError:
pass
if is_ssl:
self.stype = "SSL/TLS (wss://)"
else:
self.stype = "Plain non-SSL (ws://)"
self.log_message("%s: %s WebSocket connection", client_addr,
self.stype)
if self.path != '/':
self.log_message("%s: Path: '%s'", client_addr, self.path)
if self.record:
# Record raw frame data as JavaScript array
fname = "%s.%s" % (self.record,
self.handler_id)
self.log_message("opening record file: %s", fname)
self.rec = open(fname, 'w+')
self.rec.write("var VNC_frame_data = [\n")
try:
self.new_websocket_client()
except self.CClose:
# Close the client
_, exc, _ = sys.exc_info()
self.send_close(exc.args[0], exc.args[1])
def do_GET(self):
if self.web_auth:
# ensure connection is authorized, this seems to apply to list_directory() as well
self.auth_connection()
if self.only_upgrade:
self.send_error(405)
else:
super().do_GET()
def list_directory(self, path):
if self.file_only:
self.send_error(404)
else:
return super().list_directory(path)
def new_websocket_client(self):
""" Do something with a WebSockets client connection. """
raise Exception("WebSocketRequestHandler.new_websocket_client() must be overloaded")
def validate_connection(self):
""" Ensure that the connection has a valid token, and set the target. """
pass
def auth_connection(self):
""" Ensure that the connection is authorized. """
pass
def do_HEAD(self):
if self.web_auth:
self.auth_connection()
if self.only_upgrade:
self.send_error(405)
else:
super().do_HEAD()
def finish(self):
if self.rec:
self.rec.write("'EOF'];\n")
self.rec.close()
super().finish()
def handle(self):
# When using run_once, we have a single process, so
# we cannot loop in BaseHTTPRequestHandler.handle; we
# must return and handle new connections
if self.run_once:
self.handle_one_request()
else:
super().handle()
def log_request(self, code='-', size='-'):
if self.verbose:
super().log_request(code, size)
class WebSockifyServer():
"""
WebSockets server class.
As an alternative, the standard library SocketServer can be used
"""
policy_response = """<cross-domain-policy><allow-access-from domain="*" to-ports="*" /></cross-domain-policy>\n"""
log_prefix = "websocket"
# An exception before the WebSocket connection was established
class EClose(Exception):
pass
class Terminate(Exception):
pass
def __init__(self, RequestHandlerClass, listen_fd=None,
listen_host='', listen_port=None, source_is_ipv6=False,
verbose=False, cert='', key='', key_password=None, ssl_only=None,
verify_client=False, cafile=None,
daemon=False, record='', web='', web_auth=False,
file_only=False,
run_once=False, timeout=0, idle_timeout=0, traffic=False,
tcp_keepalive=True, tcp_keepcnt=None, tcp_keepidle=None,
tcp_keepintvl=None, ssl_ciphers=None, ssl_options=0,
unix_listen=None, unix_listen_mode=None):
# settings
self.RequestHandlerClass = RequestHandlerClass
self.verbose = verbose
self.listen_fd = listen_fd
self.unix_listen = unix_listen
self.unix_listen_mode = unix_listen_mode
self.listen_host = listen_host
self.listen_port = listen_port
self.prefer_ipv6 = source_is_ipv6
self.ssl_only = ssl_only
self.ssl_ciphers = ssl_ciphers
self.ssl_options = ssl_options
self.verify_client = verify_client
self.daemon = daemon
self.run_once = run_once
self.timeout = timeout
self.idle_timeout = idle_timeout
self.traffic = traffic
self.file_only = file_only
self.web_auth = web_auth
self.launch_time = time.time()
self.ws_connection = False
self.handler_id = 1
self.terminating = False
self.logger = self.get_logger()
self.tcp_keepalive = tcp_keepalive
self.tcp_keepcnt = tcp_keepcnt
self.tcp_keepidle = tcp_keepidle
self.tcp_keepintvl = tcp_keepintvl
# keyfile path must be None if not specified
self.key = None
self.key_password = key_password
# Make paths settings absolute
self.cert = os.path.abspath(cert)
self.web = self.record = self.cafile = ''
if key:
self.key = os.path.abspath(key)
if web:
self.web = os.path.abspath(web)
if record:
self.record = os.path.abspath(record)
if cafile:
self.cafile = os.path.abspath(cafile)
if self.web:
os.chdir(self.web)
self.only_upgrade = not self.web
# Sanity checks
if not ssl and self.ssl_only:
raise Exception("No 'ssl' module and SSL-only specified")
if self.daemon and not resource:
raise Exception("Module 'resource' required to daemonize")
# Show configuration
self.msg("WebSocket server settings:")
if self.listen_fd != None:
self.msg(" - Listen for inetd connections")
elif self.unix_listen != None:
self.msg(" - Listen on unix socket %s", self.unix_listen)
else:
self.msg(" - Listen on %s:%s",
self.listen_host, self.listen_port)
if self.web:
if self.file_only:
self.msg(" - Web server (no directory listings). Web root: %s", self.web)
else:
self.msg(" - Web server. Web root: %s", self.web)
if ssl:
if os.path.exists(self.cert):
self.msg(" - SSL/TLS support")
if self.ssl_only:
self.msg(" - Deny non-SSL/TLS connections")
else:
self.msg(" - No SSL/TLS support (no cert file)")
else:
self.msg(" - No SSL/TLS support (no 'ssl' module)")
if self.daemon:
self.msg(" - Backgrounding (daemon)")
if self.record:
self.msg(" - Recording to '%s.*'", self.record)
#
# WebSockifyServer static methods
#
@staticmethod
def get_logger():
return logging.getLogger("%s.%s" % (
WebSockifyServer.log_prefix,
WebSockifyServer.__class__.__name__))
@staticmethod
def socket(host, port=None, connect=False, prefer_ipv6=False,
unix_socket=None, unix_socket_mode=None, unix_socket_listen=False,
use_ssl=False, tcp_keepalive=True, tcp_keepcnt=None,
tcp_keepidle=None, tcp_keepintvl=None):
""" Resolve a host (and optional port) to an IPv4 or IPv6
address. Create a socket. Bind to it if listen is set,
otherwise connect to it. Return the socket.
"""
flags = 0
if host == '':
host = None
if connect and not (port or unix_socket):
raise Exception("Connect mode requires a port")
if use_ssl and not ssl:
raise Exception("SSL socket requested but Python SSL module not loaded.");
if not connect and use_ssl:
raise Exception("SSL only supported in connect mode (for now)")
if not connect:
flags = flags | socket.AI_PASSIVE
if not unix_socket:
addrs = socket.getaddrinfo(host, port, 0, socket.SOCK_STREAM,
socket.IPPROTO_TCP, flags)
if not addrs:
raise Exception("Could not resolve host '%s'" % host)
addrs.sort(key=lambda x: x[0])
if prefer_ipv6:
addrs.reverse()
sock = socket.socket(addrs[0][0], addrs[0][1])
if tcp_keepalive:
sock.setsockopt(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SO_KEEPALIVE, 1)
if tcp_keepcnt:
sock.setsockopt(socket.SOL_TCP, socket.TCP_KEEPCNT,
tcp_keepcnt)
if tcp_keepidle:
sock.setsockopt(socket.SOL_TCP, socket.TCP_KEEPIDLE,
tcp_keepidle)
if tcp_keepintvl:
sock.setsockopt(socket.SOL_TCP, socket.TCP_KEEPINTVL,
tcp_keepintvl)
if connect:
sock.connect(addrs[0][4])
if use_ssl:
sock = ssl.wrap_socket(sock)
else:
sock.setsockopt(socket.SOL_SOCKET, socket.SO_REUSEADDR, 1)
sock.bind(addrs[0][4])
sock.listen(100)
else:
if unix_socket_listen:
# Make sure the socket does not already exist
try:
os.unlink(unix_socket)
except FileNotFoundError:
pass
sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_UNIX, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
oldmask = os.umask(0o777 ^ unix_socket_mode)
try:
sock.bind(unix_socket)
finally:
os.umask(oldmask)
sock.listen(100)
else:
sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_UNIX, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
sock.connect(unix_socket)
return sock
@staticmethod
def daemonize(keepfd=None, chdir='/'):
if keepfd is None:
keepfd = []
os.umask(0)
if chdir:
os.chdir(chdir)
else:
os.chdir('/')
os.setgid(os.getgid()) # relinquish elevations
os.setuid(os.getuid()) # relinquish elevations
# Double fork to daemonize
if os.fork() > 0: os._exit(0) # Parent exits
os.setsid() # Obtain new process group
if os.fork() > 0: os._exit(0) # Parent exits
# Signal handling
signal.signal(signal.SIGTERM, signal.SIG_IGN)
signal.signal(signal.SIGINT, signal.SIG_IGN)
# Close open files
maxfd = resource.getrlimit(resource.RLIMIT_NOFILE)[1]
if maxfd == resource.RLIM_INFINITY: maxfd = 256
for fd in reversed(range(maxfd)):
try:
if fd not in keepfd:
os.close(fd)
except OSError:
_, exc, _ = sys.exc_info()
if exc.errno != errno.EBADF: raise
# Redirect I/O to /dev/null
os.dup2(os.open(os.devnull, os.O_RDWR), sys.stdin.fileno())
os.dup2(os.open(os.devnull, os.O_RDWR), sys.stdout.fileno())
os.dup2(os.open(os.devnull, os.O_RDWR), sys.stderr.fileno())
def do_handshake(self, sock, address):
"""
do_handshake does the following:
- Peek at the first few bytes from the socket.
- If the connection is an HTTPS/SSL/TLS connection then SSL
wrap the socket.
- Read from the (possibly wrapped) socket.
- If we have received a HTTP GET request and the webserver
functionality is enabled, answer it, close the socket and
return.
- Assume we have a WebSockets connection, parse the client
handshake data.
- Send a WebSockets handshake server response.
- Return the socket for this WebSocket client.
"""
ready = select.select([sock], [], [], 3)[0]
if not ready:
raise self.EClose("")
# Peek, but do not read the data so that we have a opportunity
# to SSL wrap the socket first
handshake = sock.recv(1024, socket.MSG_PEEK)
#self.msg("Handshake [%s]" % handshake)
if not handshake:
raise self.EClose("")
elif handshake[0] in (22, 128):
# SSL wrap the connection
if not ssl:
raise self.EClose("SSL connection but no 'ssl' module")
if not os.path.exists(self.cert):
raise self.EClose("SSL connection but '%s' not found"
% self.cert)
retsock = None
try:
# create new-style SSL wrapping for extended features
context = ssl.create_default_context(ssl.Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH)
if self.ssl_ciphers is not None:
context.set_ciphers(self.ssl_ciphers)
context.options = self.ssl_options
context.load_cert_chain(certfile=self.cert, keyfile=self.key, password=self.key_password)
if self.verify_client:
context.verify_mode = ssl.CERT_REQUIRED
if self.cafile:
context.load_verify_locations(cafile=self.cafile)
else:
context.set_default_verify_paths()
retsock = context.wrap_socket(
sock,
server_side=True)
except ssl.SSLError:
_, x, _ = sys.exc_info()
if x.args[0] == ssl.SSL_ERROR_EOF:
if len(x.args) > 1:
raise self.EClose(x.args[1])
else:
raise self.EClose("Got SSL_ERROR_EOF")
else:
raise
elif self.ssl_only:
raise self.EClose("non-SSL connection received but disallowed")
else:
retsock = sock
# If the address is like (host, port), we are extending it
# with a flag indicating SSL. Not many other options
# available...
if len(address) == 2:
address = (address[0], address[1], (retsock != sock))
self.RequestHandlerClass(retsock, address, self)
# Return the WebSockets socket which may be SSL wrapped
return retsock
#
# WebSockifyServer logging/output functions
#
def msg(self, *args, **kwargs):
""" Output message as info """
self.logger.log(logging.INFO, *args, **kwargs)
def vmsg(self, *args, **kwargs):
""" Same as msg() but as debug. """
self.logger.log(logging.DEBUG, *args, **kwargs)
def warn(self, *args, **kwargs):
""" Same as msg() but as warning. """
self.logger.log(logging.WARN, *args, **kwargs)
#
# Events that can/should be overridden in sub-classes
#
def started(self):
""" Called after WebSockets startup """
self.vmsg("WebSockets server started")
def poll(self):
""" Run periodically while waiting for connections. """
#self.vmsg("Running poll()")
pass
def terminate(self):
if not self.terminating:
self.terminating = True
raise self.Terminate()
def multiprocessing_SIGCHLD(self, sig, stack):
# TODO: figure out a way to actually log this information without
# calling `log` in the signal handlers
multiprocessing.active_children()
def fallback_SIGCHLD(self, sig, stack):
# Reap zombies when using os.fork() (python 2.4)
# TODO: figure out a way to actually log this information without
# calling `log` in the signal handlers
try:
result = os.waitpid(-1, os.WNOHANG)
while result[0]:
self.vmsg("Reaped child process %s" % result[0])
result = os.waitpid(-1, os.WNOHANG)
except (OSError):
pass
def do_SIGINT(self, sig, stack):
# TODO: figure out a way to actually log this information without
# calling `log` in the signal handlers
self.terminate()
def do_SIGTERM(self, sig, stack):
# TODO: figure out a way to actually log this information without
# calling `log` in the signal handlers
self.terminate()
def top_new_client(self, startsock, address):
""" Do something with a WebSockets client connection. """
# handler process
client = None
try:
try:
client = self.do_handshake(startsock, address)
except self.EClose:
_, exc, _ = sys.exc_info()
# Connection was not a WebSockets connection
if exc.args[0]:
self.msg("%s: %s" % (address[0], exc.args[0]))
except WebSockifyServer.Terminate:
raise
except Exception:
_, exc, _ = sys.exc_info()
self.msg("handler exception: %s" % str(exc))
self.vmsg("exception", exc_info=True)
finally:
if client and client != startsock:
# Close the SSL wrapped socket
# Original socket closed by caller
client.close()
def get_log_fd(self):
"""
Get file descriptors for the loggers.
They should not be closed when the process is forked.
"""
descriptors = []
for handler in self.logger.parent.handlers:
if isinstance(handler, logging.FileHandler):
descriptors.append(handler.stream.fileno())
return descriptors
def start_server(self):
"""
Daemonize if requested. Listen for for connections. Run
do_handshake() method for each connection. If the connection
is a WebSockets client then call new_websocket_client() method (which must
be overridden) for each new client connection.
"""
if self.listen_fd != None:
lsock = socket.fromfd(self.listen_fd, socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM)
elif self.unix_listen != None:
lsock = self.socket(host=None,
unix_socket=self.unix_listen,
unix_socket_mode=self.unix_listen_mode,
unix_socket_listen=True)
else:
lsock = self.socket(self.listen_host, self.listen_port, False,
self.prefer_ipv6,
tcp_keepalive=self.tcp_keepalive,
tcp_keepcnt=self.tcp_keepcnt,
tcp_keepidle=self.tcp_keepidle,
tcp_keepintvl=self.tcp_keepintvl)
if self.daemon:
keepfd = self.get_log_fd()
keepfd.append(lsock.fileno())
self.daemonize(keepfd=keepfd, chdir=self.web)
self.started() # Some things need to happen after daemonizing
# Allow override of signals
original_signals = {
signal.SIGINT: signal.getsignal(signal.SIGINT),
signal.SIGTERM: signal.getsignal(signal.SIGTERM),
}
if getattr(signal, 'SIGCHLD', None) is not None:
original_signals[signal.SIGCHLD] = signal.getsignal(signal.SIGCHLD)
signal.signal(signal.SIGINT, self.do_SIGINT)
signal.signal(signal.SIGTERM, self.do_SIGTERM)
# make sure that _cleanup is called when children die
# by calling active_children on SIGCHLD
if getattr(signal, 'SIGCHLD', None) is not None:
signal.signal(signal.SIGCHLD, self.multiprocessing_SIGCHLD)
last_active_time = self.launch_time
try:
while True:
try:
try:
startsock = None
pid = err = 0
child_count = 0
# Collect zombie child processes
child_count = len(multiprocessing.active_children())
time_elapsed = time.time() - self.launch_time
if self.timeout and time_elapsed > self.timeout:
self.msg('listener exit due to --timeout %s'
% self.timeout)
break
if self.idle_timeout:
idle_time = 0
if child_count == 0:
idle_time = time.time() - last_active_time
else:
idle_time = 0
last_active_time = time.time()
if idle_time > self.idle_timeout and child_count == 0:
self.msg('listener exit due to --idle-timeout %s'
% self.idle_timeout)
break
try:
self.poll()
ready = select.select([lsock], [], [], 1)[0]
if lsock in ready:
startsock, address = lsock.accept()
# Unix Socket will not report address (empty string), but address[0] is logged a bunch
if self.unix_listen != None:
address = [ self.unix_listen ]
else:
continue
except self.Terminate:
raise
except Exception:
_, exc, _ = sys.exc_info()
if hasattr(exc, 'errno'):
err = exc.errno
elif hasattr(exc, 'args'):
err = exc.args[0]
else:
err = exc[0]
if err == errno.EINTR:
self.vmsg("Ignoring interrupted syscall")
continue
else:
raise
if self.run_once:
# Run in same process if run_once
self.top_new_client(startsock, address)
if self.ws_connection :
self.msg('%s: exiting due to --run-once'
% address[0])
break
else:
self.vmsg('%s: new handler Process' % address[0])
p = multiprocessing.Process(
target=self.top_new_client,
args=(startsock, address))
p.start()
# child will not return
# parent process
self.handler_id += 1
except (self.Terminate, SystemExit, KeyboardInterrupt):
self.msg("In exit")
# terminate all child processes
if not self.run_once:
children = multiprocessing.active_children()
for child in children:
self.msg("Terminating child %s" % child.pid)
child.terminate()
break
except Exception:
exc = sys.exc_info()[1]
self.msg("handler exception: %s", str(exc))
self.vmsg("exception", exc_info=True)
finally:
if startsock:
startsock.close()
finally:
# Close listen port
self.vmsg("Closing socket listening at %s:%s",
self.listen_host, self.listen_port)
lsock.close()
# Restore signals
for sig, func in original_signals.items():
signal.signal(sig, func)
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