diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'chromium/third_party/cygwin/lib/perl5/5.10/Locale/Maketext.pod')
| -rw-r--r-- | chromium/third_party/cygwin/lib/perl5/5.10/Locale/Maketext.pod | 1326 |
1 files changed, 1326 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/chromium/third_party/cygwin/lib/perl5/5.10/Locale/Maketext.pod b/chromium/third_party/cygwin/lib/perl5/5.10/Locale/Maketext.pod new file mode 100644 index 00000000000..15533e4e870 --- /dev/null +++ b/chromium/third_party/cygwin/lib/perl5/5.10/Locale/Maketext.pod @@ -0,0 +1,1326 @@ + +# Time-stamp: "2004-01-11 18:35:34 AST" + +=head1 NAME + +Locale::Maketext - framework for localization + +=head1 SYNOPSIS + + package MyProgram; + use strict; + use MyProgram::L10N; + # ...which inherits from Locale::Maketext + my $lh = MyProgram::L10N->get_handle() || die "What language?"; + ... + # And then any messages your program emits, like: + warn $lh->maketext( "Can't open file [_1]: [_2]\n", $f, $! ); + ... + +=head1 DESCRIPTION + +It is a common feature of applications (whether run directly, +or via the Web) for them to be "localized" -- i.e., for them +to a present an English interface to an English-speaker, a German +interface to a German-speaker, and so on for all languages it's +programmed with. Locale::Maketext +is a framework for software localization; it provides you with the +tools for organizing and accessing the bits of text and text-processing +code that you need for producing localized applications. + +In order to make sense of Maketext and how all its +components fit together, you should probably +go read L<Locale::Maketext::TPJ13|Locale::Maketext::TPJ13>, and +I<then> read the following documentation. + +You may also want to read over the source for C<File::Findgrep> +and its constituent modules -- they are a complete (if small) +example application that uses Maketext. + +=head1 QUICK OVERVIEW + +The basic design of Locale::Maketext is object-oriented, and +Locale::Maketext is an abstract base class, from which you +derive a "project class". +The project class (with a name like "TkBocciBall::Localize", +which you then use in your module) is in turn the base class +for all the "language classes" for your project +(with names "TkBocciBall::Localize::it", +"TkBocciBall::Localize::en", +"TkBocciBall::Localize::fr", etc.). + +A language class is +a class containing a lexicon of phrases as class data, +and possibly also some methods that are of use in interpreting +phrases in the lexicon, or otherwise dealing with text in that +language. + +An object belonging to a language class is called a "language +handle"; it's typically a flyweight object. + +The normal course of action is to call: + + use TkBocciBall::Localize; # the localization project class + $lh = TkBocciBall::Localize->get_handle(); + # Depending on the user's locale, etc., this will + # make a language handle from among the classes available, + # and any defaults that you declare. + die "Couldn't make a language handle??" unless $lh; + +From then on, you use the C<maketext> function to access +entries in whatever lexicon(s) belong to the language handle +you got. So, this: + + print $lh->maketext("You won!"), "\n"; + +...emits the right text for this language. If the object +in C<$lh> belongs to class "TkBocciBall::Localize::fr" and +%TkBocciBall::Localize::fr::Lexicon contains C<("You won!" +=E<gt> "Tu as gagnE<eacute>!")>, then the above +code happily tells the user "Tu as gagnE<eacute>!". + +=head1 METHODS + +Locale::Maketext offers a variety of methods, which fall +into three categories: + +=over + +=item * + +Methods to do with constructing language handles. + +=item * + +C<maketext> and other methods to do with accessing %Lexicon data +for a given language handle. + +=item * + +Methods that you may find it handy to use, from routines of +yours that you put in %Lexicon entries. + +=back + +These are covered in the following section. + +=head2 Construction Methods + +These are to do with constructing a language handle: + +=over + +=item * + +$lh = YourProjClass->get_handle( ...langtags... ) || die "lg-handle?"; + +This tries loading classes based on the language-tags you give (like +C<("en-US", "sk", "kon", "es-MX", "ja", "i-klingon")>, and for the first class +that succeeds, returns YourProjClass::I<language>->new(). + +If it runs thru the entire given list of language-tags, and finds no classes +for those exact terms, it then tries "superordinate" language classes. +So if no "en-US" class (i.e., YourProjClass::en_us) +was found, nor classes for anything else in that list, we then try +its superordinate, "en" (i.e., YourProjClass::en), and so on thru +the other language-tags in the given list: "es". +(The other language-tags in our example list: +happen to have no superordinates.) + +If none of those language-tags leads to loadable classes, we then +try classes derived from YourProjClass->fallback_languages() and +then if nothing comes of that, we use classes named by +YourProjClass->fallback_language_classes(). Then in the (probably +quite unlikely) event that that fails, we just return undef. + +=item * + +$lh = YourProjClass->get_handleB<()> || die "lg-handle?"; + +When C<get_handle> is called with an empty parameter list, magic happens: + +If C<get_handle> senses that it's running in program that was +invoked as a CGI, then it tries to get language-tags out of the +environment variable "HTTP_ACCEPT_LANGUAGE", and it pretends that +those were the languages passed as parameters to C<get_handle>. + +Otherwise (i.e., if not a CGI), this tries various OS-specific ways +to get the language-tags for the current locale/language, and then +pretends that those were the value(s) passed to C<get_handle>. + +Currently this OS-specific stuff consists of looking in the environment +variables "LANG" and "LANGUAGE"; and on MSWin machines (where those +variables are typically unused), this also tries using +the module Win32::Locale to get a language-tag for whatever language/locale +is currently selected in the "Regional Settings" (or "International"?) +Control Panel. I welcome further +suggestions for making this do the Right Thing under other operating +systems that support localization. + +If you're using localization in an application that keeps a configuration +file, you might consider something like this in your project class: + + sub get_handle_via_config { + my $class = $_[0]; + my $chosen_language = $Config_settings{'language'}; + my $lh; + if($chosen_language) { + $lh = $class->get_handle($chosen_language) + || die "No language handle for \"$chosen_language\" or the like"; + } else { + # Config file missing, maybe? + $lh = $class->get_handle() + || die "Can't get a language handle"; + } + return $lh; + } + +=item * + +$lh = YourProjClass::langname->new(); + +This constructs a language handle. You usually B<don't> call this +directly, but instead let C<get_handle> find a language class to C<use> +and to then call ->new on. + +=item * + +$lh->init(); + +This is called by ->new to initialize newly-constructed language handles. +If you define an init method in your class, remember that it's usually +considered a good idea to call $lh->SUPER::init in it (presumably at the +beginning), so that all classes get a chance to initialize a new object +however they see fit. + +=item * + +YourProjClass->fallback_languages() + +C<get_handle> appends the return value of this to the end of +whatever list of languages you pass C<get_handle>. Unless +you override this method, your project class +will inherit Locale::Maketext's C<fallback_languages>, which +currently returns C<('i-default', 'en', 'en-US')>. +("i-default" is defined in RFC 2277). + +This method (by having it return the name +of a language-tag that has an existing language class) +can be used for making sure that +C<get_handle> will always manage to construct a language +handle (assuming your language classes are in an appropriate +@INC directory). Or you can use the next method: + +=item * + +YourProjClass->fallback_language_classes() + +C<get_handle> appends the return value of this to the end +of the list of classes it will try using. Unless +you override this method, your project class +will inherit Locale::Maketext's C<fallback_language_classes>, +which currently returns an empty list, C<()>. +By setting this to some value (namely, the name of a loadable +language class), you can be sure that +C<get_handle> will always manage to construct a language +handle. + +=back + +=head2 The "maketext" Method + +This is the most important method in Locale::Maketext: + + $text = $lh->maketext(I<key>, ...parameters for this phrase...); + +This looks in the %Lexicon of the language handle +$lh and all its superclasses, looking +for an entry whose key is the string I<key>. Assuming such +an entry is found, various things then happen, depending on the +value found: + +If the value is a scalarref, the scalar is dereferenced and returned +(and any parameters are ignored). + +If the value is a coderef, we return &$value($lh, ...parameters...). + +If the value is a string that I<doesn't> look like it's in Bracket Notation, +we return it (after replacing it with a scalarref, in its %Lexicon). + +If the value I<does> look like it's in Bracket Notation, then we compile +it into a sub, replace the string in the %Lexicon with the new coderef, +and then we return &$new_sub($lh, ...parameters...). + +Bracket Notation is discussed in a later section. Note +that trying to compile a string into Bracket Notation can throw +an exception if the string is not syntactically valid (say, by not +balancing brackets right.) + +Also, calling &$coderef($lh, ...parameters...) can throw any sort of +exception (if, say, code in that sub tries to divide by zero). But +a very common exception occurs when you have Bracket +Notation text that says to call a method "foo", but there is no such +method. (E.g., "You have [quaB<tn>,_1,ball]." will throw an exception +on trying to call $lh->quaB<tn>($_[1],'ball') -- you presumably meant +"quant".) C<maketext> catches these exceptions, but only to make the +error message more readable, at which point it rethrows the exception. + +An exception I<may> be thrown if I<key> is not found in any +of $lh's %Lexicon hashes. What happens if a key is not found, +is discussed in a later section, "Controlling Lookup Failure". + +Note that you might find it useful in some cases to override +the C<maketext> method with an "after method", if you want to +translate encodings, or even scripts: + + package YrProj::zh_cn; # Chinese with PRC-style glyphs + use base ('YrProj::zh_tw'); # Taiwan-style + sub maketext { + my $self = shift(@_); + my $value = $self->maketext(@_); + return Chineeze::taiwan2mainland($value); + } + +Or you may want to override it with something that traps +any exceptions, if that's critical to your program: + + sub maketext { + my($lh, @stuff) = @_; + my $out; + eval { $out = $lh->SUPER::maketext(@stuff) }; + return $out unless $@; + ...otherwise deal with the exception... + } + +Other than those two situations, I don't imagine that +it's useful to override the C<maketext> method. (If +you run into a situation where it is useful, I'd be +interested in hearing about it.) + +=over + +=item $lh->fail_with I<or> $lh->fail_with(I<PARAM>) + +=item $lh->failure_handler_auto + +These two methods are discussed in the section "Controlling +Lookup Failure". + +=back + +=head2 Utility Methods + +These are methods that you may find it handy to use, generally +from %Lexicon routines of yours (whether expressed as +Bracket Notation or not). + +=over + +=item $language->quant($number, $singular) + +=item $language->quant($number, $singular, $plural) + +=item $language->quant($number, $singular, $plural, $negative) + +This is generally meant to be called from inside Bracket Notation +(which is discussed later), as in + + "Your search matched [quant,_1,document]!" + +It's for I<quantifying> a noun (i.e., saying how much of it there is, +while giving the correct form of it). The behavior of this method is +handy for English and a few other Western European languages, and you +should override it for languages where it's not suitable. You can feel +free to read the source, but the current implementation is basically +as this pseudocode describes: + + if $number is 0 and there's a $negative, + return $negative; + elsif $number is 1, + return "1 $singular"; + elsif there's a $plural, + return "$number $plural"; + else + return "$number " . $singular . "s"; + # + # ...except that we actually call numf to + # stringify $number before returning it. + +So for English (with Bracket Notation) +C<"...[quant,_1,file]..."> is fine (for 0 it returns "0 files", +for 1 it returns "1 file", and for more it returns "2 files", etc.) + +But for "directory", you'd want C<"[quant,_1,directory,directories]"> +so that our elementary C<quant> method doesn't think that the +plural of "directory" is "directorys". And you might find that the +output may sound better if you specify a negative form, as in: + + "[quant,_1,file,files,No files] matched your query.\n" + +Remember to keep in mind verb agreement (or adjectives too, in +other languages), as in: + + "[quant,_1,document] were matched.\n" + +Because if _1 is one, you get "1 document B<were> matched". +An acceptable hack here is to do something like this: + + "[quant,_1,document was, documents were] matched.\n" + +=item $language->numf($number) + +This returns the given number formatted nicely according to +this language's conventions. Maketext's default method is +mostly to just take the normal string form of the number +(applying sprintf "%G" for only very large numbers), and then +to add commas as necessary. (Except that +we apply C<tr/,./.,/> if $language->{'numf_comma'} is true; +that's a bit of a hack that's useful for languages that express +two million as "2.000.000" and not as "2,000,000"). + +If you want anything fancier, consider overriding this with something +that uses L<Number::Format|Number::Format>, or does something else +entirely. + +Note that numf is called by quant for stringifying all quantifying +numbers. + +=item $language->sprintf($format, @items) + +This is just a wrapper around Perl's normal C<sprintf> function. +It's provided so that you can use "sprintf" in Bracket Notation: + + "Couldn't access datanode [sprintf,%10x=~[%s~],_1,_2]!\n" + +returning... + + Couldn't access datanode Stuff=[thangamabob]! + +=item $language->language_tag() + +Currently this just takes the last bit of C<ref($language)>, turns +underscores to dashes, and returns it. So if $language is +an object of class Hee::HOO::Haw::en_us, $language->language_tag() +returns "en-us". (Yes, the usual representation for that language +tag is "en-US", but case is I<never> considered meaningful in +language-tag comparison.) + +You may override this as you like; Maketext doesn't use it for +anything. + +=item $language->encoding() + +Currently this isn't used for anything, but it's provided +(with default value of +C<(ref($language) && $language-E<gt>{'encoding'})) or "iso-8859-1"> +) as a sort of suggestion that it may be useful/necessary to +associate encodings with your language handles (whether on a +per-class or even per-handle basis.) + +=back + +=head2 Language Handle Attributes and Internals + +A language handle is a flyweight object -- i.e., it doesn't (necessarily) +carry any data of interest, other than just being a member of +whatever class it belongs to. + +A language handle is implemented as a blessed hash. Subclasses of yours +can store whatever data you want in the hash. Currently the only hash +entry used by any crucial Maketext method is "fail", so feel free to +use anything else as you like. + +B<Remember: Don't be afraid to read the Maketext source if there's +any point on which this documentation is unclear.> This documentation +is vastly longer than the module source itself. + +=over + +=back + +=head1 LANGUAGE CLASS HIERARCHIES + +These are Locale::Maketext's assumptions about the class +hierarchy formed by all your language classes: + +=over + +=item * + +You must have a project base class, which you load, and +which you then use as the first argument in +the call to YourProjClass->get_handle(...). It should derive +(whether directly or indirectly) from Locale::Maketext. +It B<doesn't matter> how you name this class, although assuming this +is the localization component of your Super Mega Program, +good names for your project class might be +SuperMegaProgram::Localization, SuperMegaProgram::L10N, +SuperMegaProgram::I18N, SuperMegaProgram::International, +or even SuperMegaProgram::Languages or SuperMegaProgram::Messages. + +=item * + +Language classes are what YourProjClass->get_handle will try to load. +It will look for them by taking each language-tag (B<skipping> it +if it doesn't look like a language-tag or locale-tag!), turning it to +all lowercase, turning dashes to underscores, and appending it +to YourProjClass . "::". So this: + + $lh = YourProjClass->get_handle( + 'en-US', 'fr', 'kon', 'i-klingon', 'i-klingon-romanized' + ); + +will try loading the classes +YourProjClass::en_us (note lowercase!), YourProjClass::fr, +YourProjClass::kon, +YourProjClass::i_klingon +and YourProjClass::i_klingon_romanized. (And it'll stop at the +first one that actually loads.) + +=item * + +I assume that each language class derives (directly or indirectly) +from your project class, and also defines its @ISA, its %Lexicon, +or both. But I anticipate no dire consequences if these assumptions +do not hold. + +=item * + +Language classes may derive from other language classes (although they +should have "use I<Thatclassname>" or "use base qw(I<...classes...>)"). +They may derive from the project +class. They may derive from some other class altogether. Or via +multiple inheritance, it may derive from any mixture of these. + +=item * + +I foresee no problems with having multiple inheritance in +your hierarchy of language classes. (As usual, however, Perl will +complain bitterly if you have a cycle in the hierarchy: i.e., if +any class is its own ancestor.) + +=back + +=head1 ENTRIES IN EACH LEXICON + +A typical %Lexicon entry is meant to signify a phrase, +taking some number (0 or more) of parameters. An entry +is meant to be accessed by via +a string I<key> in $lh->maketext(I<key>, ...parameters...), +which should return a string that is generally meant for +be used for "output" to the user -- regardless of whether +this actually means printing to STDOUT, writing to a file, +or putting into a GUI widget. + +While the key must be a string value (since that's a basic +restriction that Perl places on hash keys), the value in +the lexicon can currently be of several types: +a defined scalar, scalarref, or coderef. The use of these is +explained above, in the section 'The "maketext" Method', and +Bracket Notation for strings is discussed in the next section. + +While you can use arbitrary unique IDs for lexicon keys +(like "_min_larger_max_error"), it is often +useful for if an entry's key is itself a valid value, like +this example error message: + + "Minimum ([_1]) is larger than maximum ([_2])!\n", + +Compare this code that uses an arbitrary ID... + + die $lh->maketext( "_min_larger_max_error", $min, $max ) + if $min > $max; + +...to this code that uses a key-as-value: + + die $lh->maketext( + "Minimum ([_1]) is larger than maximum ([_2])!\n", + $min, $max + ) if $min > $max; + +The second is, in short, more readable. In particular, it's obvious +that the number of parameters you're feeding to that phrase (two) is +the number of parameters that it I<wants> to be fed. (Since you see +_1 and a _2 being used in the key there.) + +Also, once a project is otherwise +complete and you start to localize it, you can scrape together +all the various keys you use, and pass it to a translator; and then +the translator's work will go faster if what he's presented is this: + + "Minimum ([_1]) is larger than maximum ([_2])!\n", + => "", # fill in something here, Jacques! + +rather than this more cryptic mess: + + "_min_larger_max_error" + => "", # fill in something here, Jacques + +I think that keys as lexicon values makes the completed lexicon +entries more readable: + + "Minimum ([_1]) is larger than maximum ([_2])!\n", + => "Le minimum ([_1]) est plus grand que le maximum ([_2])!\n", + +Also, having valid values as keys becomes very useful if you set +up an _AUTO lexicon. _AUTO lexicons are discussed in a later +section. + +I almost always use keys that are themselves +valid lexicon values. One notable exception is when the value is +quite long. For example, to get the screenful of data that +a command-line program might return when given an unknown switch, +I often just use a brief, self-explanatory key such as "_USAGE_MESSAGE". At that point I then go +and immediately to define that lexicon entry in the +ProjectClass::L10N::en lexicon (since English is always my "project +language"): + + '_USAGE_MESSAGE' => <<'EOSTUFF', + ...long long message... + EOSTUFF + +and then I can use it as: + + getopt('oDI', \%opts) or die $lh->maketext('_USAGE_MESSAGE'); + +Incidentally, +note that each class's C<%Lexicon> inherits-and-extends +the lexicons in its superclasses. This is not because these are +special hashes I<per se>, but because you access them via the +C<maketext> method, which looks for entries across all the +C<%Lexicon> hashes in a language class I<and> all its ancestor classes. +(This is because the idea of "class data" isn't directly implemented +in Perl, but is instead left to individual class-systems to implement +as they see fit..) + +Note that you may have things stored in a lexicon +besides just phrases for output: for example, if your program +takes input from the keyboard, asking a "(Y/N)" question, +you probably need to know what the equivalent of "Y[es]/N[o]" is +in whatever language. You probably also need to know what +the equivalents of the answers "y" and "n" are. You can +store that information in the lexicon (say, under the keys +"~answer_y" and "~answer_n", and the long forms as +"~answer_yes" and "~answer_no", where "~" is just an ad-hoc +character meant to indicate to programmers/translators that +these are not phrases for output). + +Or instead of storing this in the language class's lexicon, +you can (and, in some cases, really should) represent the same bit +of knowledge as code in a method in the language class. (That +leaves a tidy distinction between the lexicon as the things we +know how to I<say>, and the rest of the things in the lexicon class +as things that we know how to I<do>.) Consider +this example of a processor for responses to French "oui/non" +questions: + + sub y_or_n { + return undef unless defined $_[1] and length $_[1]; + my $answer = lc $_[1]; # smash case + return 1 if $answer eq 'o' or $answer eq 'oui'; + return 0 if $answer eq 'n' or $answer eq 'non'; + return undef; + } + +...which you'd then call in a construct like this: + + my $response; + until(defined $response) { + print $lh->maketext("Open the pod bay door (y/n)? "); + $response = $lh->y_or_n( get_input_from_keyboard_somehow() ); + } + if($response) { $pod_bay_door->open() } + else { $pod_bay_door->leave_closed() } + +Other data worth storing in a lexicon might be things like +filenames for language-targetted resources: + + ... + "_main_splash_png" + => "/styles/en_us/main_splash.png", + "_main_splash_imagemap" + => "/styles/en_us/main_splash.incl", + "_general_graphics_path" + => "/styles/en_us/", + "_alert_sound" + => "/styles/en_us/hey_there.wav", + "_forward_icon" + => "left_arrow.png", + "_backward_icon" + => "right_arrow.png", + # In some other languages, left equals + # BACKwards, and right is FOREwards. + ... + +You might want to do the same thing for expressing key bindings +or the like (since hardwiring "q" as the binding for the function +that quits a screen/menu/program is useful only if your language +happens to associate "q" with "quit"!) + +=head1 BRACKET NOTATION + +Bracket Notation is a crucial feature of Locale::Maketext. I mean +Bracket Notation to provide a replacement for the use of sprintf formatting. +Everything you do with Bracket Notation could be done with a sub block, +but bracket notation is meant to be much more concise. + +Bracket Notation is a like a miniature "template" system (in the sense +of L<Text::Template|Text::Template>, not in the sense of C++ templates), +where normal text is passed thru basically as is, but text in special +regions is specially interpreted. In Bracket Notation, you use square brackets ("[...]"), +not curly braces ("{...}") to note sections that are specially interpreted. + +For example, here all the areas that are taken literally are underlined with +a "^", and all the in-bracket special regions are underlined with an X: + + "Minimum ([_1]) is larger than maximum ([_2])!\n", + ^^^^^^^^^ XX ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ XX ^^^^ + +When that string is compiled from bracket notation into a real Perl sub, +it's basically turned into: + + sub { + my $lh = $_[0]; + my @params = @_; + return join '', + "Minimum (", + ...some code here... + ") is larger than maximum (", + ...some code here... + ")!\n", + } + # to be called by $lh->maketext(KEY, params...) + +In other words, text outside bracket groups is turned into string +literals. Text in brackets is rather more complex, and currently follows +these rules: + +=over + +=item * + +Bracket groups that are empty, or which consist only of whitespace, +are ignored. (Examples: "[]", "[ ]", or a [ and a ] with returns +and/or tabs and/or spaces between them. + +Otherwise, each group is taken to be a comma-separated group of items, +and each item is interpreted as follows: + +=item * + +An item that is "_I<digits>" or "_-I<digits>" is interpreted as +$_[I<value>]. I.e., "_1" becomes with $_[1], and "_-3" is interpreted +as $_[-3] (in which case @_ should have at least three elements in it). +Note that $_[0] is the language handle, and is typically not named +directly. + +=item * + +An item "_*" is interpreted to mean "all of @_ except $_[0]". +I.e., C<@_[1..$#_]>. Note that this is an empty list in the case +of calls like $lh->maketext(I<key>) where there are no +parameters (except $_[0], the language handle). + +=item * + +Otherwise, each item is interpreted as a string literal. + +=back + +The group as a whole is interpreted as follows: + +=over + +=item * + +If the first item in a bracket group looks like a method name, +then that group is interpreted like this: + + $lh->that_method_name( + ...rest of items in this group... + ), + +=item * + +If the first item in a bracket group is "*", it's taken as shorthand +for the so commonly called "quant" method. Similarly, if the first +item in a bracket group is "#", it's taken to be shorthand for +"numf". + +=item * + +If the first item in a bracket group is the empty-string, or "_*" +or "_I<digits>" or "_-I<digits>", then that group is interpreted +as just the interpolation of all its items: + + join('', + ...rest of items in this group... + ), + +Examples: "[_1]" and "[,_1]", which are synonymous; and +"C<[,ID-(,_4,-,_2,)]>", which compiles as +C<join "", "ID-(", $_[4], "-", $_[2], ")">. + +=item * + +Otherwise this bracket group is invalid. For example, in the group +"[!@#,whatever]", the first item C<"!@#"> is neither the empty-string, +"_I<number>", "_-I<number>", "_*", nor a valid method name; and so +Locale::Maketext will throw an exception of you try compiling an +expression containing this bracket group. + +=back + +Note, incidentally, that items in each group are comma-separated, +not C</\s*,\s*/>-separated. That is, you might expect that this +bracket group: + + "Hoohah [foo, _1 , bar ,baz]!" + +would compile to this: + + sub { + my $lh = $_[0]; + return join '', + "Hoohah ", + $lh->foo( $_[1], "bar", "baz"), + "!", + } + +But it actually compiles as this: + + sub { + my $lh = $_[0]; + return join '', + "Hoohah ", + $lh->foo(" _1 ", " bar ", "baz"), # note the <space> in " bar " + "!", + } + +In the notation discussed so far, the characters "[" and "]" are given +special meaning, for opening and closing bracket groups, and "," has +a special meaning inside bracket groups, where it separates items in the +group. This begs the question of how you'd express a literal "[" or +"]" in a Bracket Notation string, and how you'd express a literal +comma inside a bracket group. For this purpose I've adopted "~" (tilde) +as an escape character: "~[" means a literal '[' character anywhere +in Bracket Notation (i.e., regardless of whether you're in a bracket +group or not), and ditto for "~]" meaning a literal ']', and "~," meaning +a literal comma. (Altho "," means a literal comma outside of +bracket groups -- it's only inside bracket groups that commas are special.) + +And on the off chance you need a literal tilde in a bracket expression, +you get it with "~~". + +Currently, an unescaped "~" before a character +other than a bracket or a comma is taken to mean just a "~" and that +character. I.e., "~X" means the same as "~~X" -- i.e., one literal tilde, +and then one literal "X". However, by using "~X", you are assuming that +no future version of Maketext will use "~X" as a magic escape sequence. +In practice this is not a great problem, since first off you can just +write "~~X" and not worry about it; second off, I doubt I'll add lots +of new magic characters to bracket notation; and third off, you +aren't likely to want literal "~" characters in your messages anyway, +since it's not a character with wide use in natural language text. + +Brackets must be balanced -- every openbracket must have +one matching closebracket, and vice versa. So these are all B<invalid>: + + "I ate [quant,_1,rhubarb pie." + "I ate [quant,_1,rhubarb pie[." + "I ate quant,_1,rhubarb pie]." + "I ate quant,_1,rhubarb pie[." + +Currently, bracket groups do not nest. That is, you B<cannot> say: + + "Foo [bar,baz,[quux,quuux]]\n"; + +If you need a notation that's that powerful, use normal Perl: + + %Lexicon = ( + ... + "some_key" => sub { + my $lh = $_[0]; + join '', + "Foo ", + $lh->bar('baz', $lh->quux('quuux')), + "\n", + }, + ... + ); + +Or write the "bar" method so you don't need to pass it the +output from calling quux. + +I do not anticipate that you will need (or particularly want) +to nest bracket groups, but you are welcome to email me with +convincing (real-life) arguments to the contrary. + +=head1 AUTO LEXICONS + +If maketext goes to look in an individual %Lexicon for an entry +for I<key> (where I<key> does not start with an underscore), and +sees none, B<but does see> an entry of "_AUTO" => I<some_true_value>, +then we actually define $Lexicon{I<key>} = I<key> right then and there, +and then use that value as if it had been there all +along. This happens before we even look in any superclass %Lexicons! + +(This is meant to be somewhat like the AUTOLOAD mechanism in +Perl's function call system -- or, looked at another way, +like the L<AutoLoader|AutoLoader> module.) + +I can picture all sorts of circumstances where you just +do not want lookup to be able to fail (since failing +normally means that maketext throws a C<die>, although +see the next section for greater control over that). But +here's one circumstance where _AUTO lexicons are meant to +be I<especially> useful: + +As you're writing an application, you decide as you go what messages +you need to emit. Normally you'd go to write this: + + if(-e $filename) { + go_process_file($filename) + } else { + print qq{Couldn't find file "$filename"!\n}; + } + +but since you anticipate localizing this, you write: + + use ThisProject::I18N; + my $lh = ThisProject::I18N->get_handle(); + # For the moment, assume that things are set up so + # that we load class ThisProject::I18N::en + # and that that's the class that $lh belongs to. + ... + if(-e $filename) { + go_process_file($filename) + } else { + print $lh->maketext( + qq{Couldn't find file "[_1]"!\n}, $filename + ); + } + +Now, right after you've just written the above lines, you'd +normally have to go open the file +ThisProject/I18N/en.pm, and immediately add an entry: + + "Couldn't find file \"[_1]\"!\n" + => "Couldn't find file \"[_1]\"!\n", + +But I consider that somewhat of a distraction from the work +of getting the main code working -- to say nothing of the fact +that I often have to play with the program a few times before +I can decide exactly what wording I want in the messages (which +in this case would require me to go changing three lines of code: +the call to maketext with that key, and then the two lines in +ThisProject/I18N/en.pm). + +However, if you set "_AUTO => 1" in the %Lexicon in, +ThisProject/I18N/en.pm (assuming that English (en) is +the language that all your programmers will be using for this +project's internal message keys), then you don't ever have to +go adding lines like this + + "Couldn't find file \"[_1]\"!\n" + => "Couldn't find file \"[_1]\"!\n", + +to ThisProject/I18N/en.pm, because if _AUTO is true there, +then just looking for an entry with the key "Couldn't find +file \"[_1]\"!\n" in that lexicon will cause it to be added, +with that value! + +Note that the reason that keys that start with "_" +are immune to _AUTO isn't anything generally magical about +the underscore character -- I just wanted a way to have most +lexicon keys be autoable, except for possibly a few, and I +arbitrarily decided to use a leading underscore as a signal +to distinguish those few. + +=head1 CONTROLLING LOOKUP FAILURE + +If you call $lh->maketext(I<key>, ...parameters...), +and there's no entry I<key> in $lh's class's %Lexicon, nor +in the superclass %Lexicon hash, I<and> if we can't auto-make +I<key> (because either it starts with a "_", or because none +of its lexicons have C<_AUTO =E<gt> 1,>), then we have +failed to find a normal way to maketext I<key>. What then +happens in these failure conditions, depends on the $lh object's +"fail" attribute. + +If the language handle has no "fail" attribute, maketext +will simply throw an exception (i.e., it calls C<die>, mentioning +the I<key> whose lookup failed, and naming the line number where +the calling $lh->maketext(I<key>,...) was. + +If the language handle has a "fail" attribute whose value is a +coderef, then $lh->maketext(I<key>,...params...) gives up and calls: + + return $that_subref->($lh, $key, @params); + +Otherwise, the "fail" attribute's value should be a string denoting +a method name, so that $lh->maketext(I<key>,...params...) can +give up with: + + return $lh->$that_method_name($phrase, @params); + +The "fail" attribute can be accessed with the C<fail_with> method: + + # Set to a coderef: + $lh->fail_with( \&failure_handler ); + + # Set to a method name: + $lh->fail_with( 'failure_method' ); + + # Set to nothing (i.e., so failure throws a plain exception) + $lh->fail_with( undef ); + + # Get the current value + $handler = $lh->fail_with(); + +Now, as to what you may want to do with these handlers: Maybe you'd +want to log what key failed for what class, and then die. Maybe +you don't like C<die> and instead you want to send the error message +to STDOUT (or wherever) and then merely C<exit()>. + +Or maybe you don't want to C<die> at all! Maybe you could use a +handler like this: + + # Make all lookups fall back onto an English value, + # but only after we log it for later fingerpointing. + my $lh_backup = ThisProject->get_handle('en'); + open(LEX_FAIL_LOG, ">>wherever/lex.log") || die "GNAARGH $!"; + sub lex_fail { + my($failing_lh, $key, $params) = @_; + print LEX_FAIL_LOG scalar(localtime), "\t", + ref($failing_lh), "\t", $key, "\n"; + return $lh_backup->maketext($key,@params); + } + +Some users have expressed that they think this whole mechanism of +having a "fail" attribute at all, seems a rather pointless complication. +But I want Locale::Maketext to be usable for software projects of I<any> +scale and type; and different software projects have different ideas +of what the right thing is to do in failure conditions. I could simply +say that failure always throws an exception, and that if you want to be +careful, you'll just have to wrap every call to $lh->maketext in an +S<eval { }>. However, I want programmers to reserve the right (via +the "fail" attribute) to treat lookup failure as something other than +an exception of the same level of severity as a config file being +unreadable, or some essential resource being inaccessible. + +One possibly useful value for the "fail" attribute is the method name +"failure_handler_auto". This is a method defined in the class +Locale::Maketext itself. You set it with: + + $lh->fail_with('failure_handler_auto'); + +Then when you call $lh->maketext(I<key>, ...parameters...) and +there's no I<key> in any of those lexicons, maketext gives up with + + return $lh->failure_handler_auto($key, @params); + +But failure_handler_auto, instead of dying or anything, compiles +$key, caching it in + + $lh->{'failure_lex'}{$key} = $complied + +and then calls the compiled value, and returns that. (I.e., if +$key looks like bracket notation, $compiled is a sub, and we return +&{$compiled}(@params); but if $key is just a plain string, we just +return that.) + +The effect of using "failure_auto_handler" +is like an AUTO lexicon, except that it 1) compiles $key even if +it starts with "_", and 2) you have a record in the new hashref +$lh->{'failure_lex'} of all the keys that have failed for +this object. This should avoid your program dying -- as long +as your keys aren't actually invalid as bracket code, and as +long as they don't try calling methods that don't exist. + +"failure_auto_handler" may not be exactly what you want, but I +hope it at least shows you that maketext failure can be mitigated +in any number of very flexible ways. If you can formalize exactly +what you want, you should be able to express that as a failure +handler. You can even make it default for every object of a given +class, by setting it in that class's init: + + sub init { + my $lh = $_[0]; # a newborn handle + $lh->SUPER::init(); + $lh->fail_with('my_clever_failure_handler'); + return; + } + sub my_clever_failure_handler { + ...you clever things here... + } + +=head1 HOW TO USE MAKETEXT + +Here is a brief checklist on how to use Maketext to localize +applications: + +=over + +=item * + +Decide what system you'll use for lexicon keys. If you insist, +you can use opaque IDs (if you're nostalgic for C<catgets>), +but I have better suggestions in the +section "Entries in Each Lexicon", above. Assuming you opt for +meaningful keys that double as values (like "Minimum ([_1]) is +larger than maximum ([_2])!\n"), you'll have to settle on what +language those should be in. For the sake of argument, I'll +call this English, specifically American English, "en-US". + +=item * + +Create a class for your localization project. This is +the name of the class that you'll use in the idiom: + + use Projname::L10N; + my $lh = Projname::L10N->get_handle(...) || die "Language?"; + +Assuming you call your class Projname::L10N, create a class +consisting minimally of: + + package Projname::L10N; + use base qw(Locale::Maketext); + ...any methods you might want all your languages to share... + + # And, assuming you want the base class to be an _AUTO lexicon, + # as is discussed a few sections up: + + 1; + +=item * + +Create a class for the language your internal keys are in. Name +the class after the language-tag for that language, in lowercase, +with dashes changed to underscores. Assuming your project's first +language is US English, you should call this Projname::L10N::en_us. +It should consist minimally of: + + package Projname::L10N::en_us; + use base qw(Projname::L10N); + %Lexicon = ( + '_AUTO' => 1, + ); + 1; + +(For the rest of this section, I'll assume that this "first +language class" of Projname::L10N::en_us has +_AUTO lexicon.) + +=item * + +Go and write your program. Everywhere in your program where +you would say: + + print "Foobar $thing stuff\n"; + +instead do it thru maketext, using no variable interpolation in +the key: + + print $lh->maketext("Foobar [_1] stuff\n", $thing); + +If you get tired of constantly saying C<print $lh-E<gt>maketext>, +consider making a functional wrapper for it, like so: + + use Projname::L10N; + use vars qw($lh); + $lh = Projname::L10N->get_handle(...) || die "Language?"; + sub pmt (@) { print( $lh->maketext(@_)) } + # "pmt" is short for "Print MakeText" + $Carp::Verbose = 1; + # so if maketext fails, we see made the call to pmt + +Besides whole phrases meant for output, anything language-dependent +should be put into the class Projname::L10N::en_us, +whether as methods, or as lexicon entries -- this is discussed +in the section "Entries in Each Lexicon", above. + +=item * + +Once the program is otherwise done, and once its localization for +the first language works right (via the data and methods in +Projname::L10N::en_us), you can get together the data for translation. +If your first language lexicon isn't an _AUTO lexicon, then you already +have all the messages explicitly in the lexicon (or else you'd be +getting exceptions thrown when you call $lh->maketext to get +messages that aren't in there). But if you were (advisedly) lazy and are +using an _AUTO lexicon, then you've got to make a list of all the phrases +that you've so far been letting _AUTO generate for you. There are very +many ways to assemble such a list. The most straightforward is to simply +grep the source for every occurrence of "maketext" (or calls +to wrappers around it, like the above C<pmt> function), and to log the +following phrase. + +=item * + +You may at this point want to consider whether your base class +(Projname::L10N), from which all lexicons inherit from (Projname::L10N::en, +Projname::L10N::es, etc.), should be an _AUTO lexicon. It may be true +that in theory, all needed messages will be in each language class; +but in the presumably unlikely or "impossible" case of lookup failure, +you should consider whether your program should throw an exception, +emit text in English (or whatever your project's first language is), +or some more complex solution as described in the section +"Controlling Lookup Failure", above. + +=item * + +Submit all messages/phrases/etc. to translators. + +(You may, in fact, want to start with localizing to I<one> other language +at first, if you're not sure that you've properly abstracted the +language-dependent parts of your code.) + +Translators may request clarification of the situation in which a +particular phrase is found. For example, in English we are entirely happy +saying "I<n> files found", regardless of whether we mean "I looked for files, +and found I<n> of them" or the rather distinct situation of "I looked for +something else (like lines in files), and along the way I saw I<n> +files." This may involve rethinking things that you thought quite clear: +should "Edit" on a toolbar be a noun ("editing") or a verb ("to edit")? Is +there already a conventionalized way to express that menu option, separate +from the target language's normal word for "to edit"? + +In all cases where the very common phenomenon of quantification +(saying "I<N> files", for B<any> value of N) +is involved, each translator should make clear what dependencies the +number causes in the sentence. In many cases, dependency is +limited to words adjacent to the number, in places where you might +expect them ("I found the-?PLURAL I<N> +empty-?PLURAL directory-?PLURAL"), but in some cases there are +unexpected dependencies ("I found-?PLURAL ..."!) as well as long-distance +dependencies "The I<N> directory-?PLURAL could not be deleted-?PLURAL"!). + +Remind the translators to consider the case where N is 0: +"0 files found" isn't exactly natural-sounding in any language, but it +may be unacceptable in many -- or it may condition special +kinds of agreement (similar to English "I didN'T find ANY files"). + +Remember to ask your translators about numeral formatting in their +language, so that you can override the C<numf> method as +appropriate. Typical variables in number formatting are: what to +use as a decimal point (comma? period?); what to use as a thousands +separator (space? nonbreaking space? comma? period? small +middot? prime? apostrophe?); and even whether the so-called "thousands +separator" is actually for every third digit -- I've heard reports of +two hundred thousand being expressible as "2,00,000" for some Indian +(Subcontinental) languages, besides the less surprising "S<200 000>", +"200.000", "200,000", and "200'000". Also, using a set of numeral +glyphs other than the usual ASCII "0"-"9" might be appreciated, as via +C<tr/0-9/\x{0966}-\x{096F}/> for getting digits in Devanagari script +(for Hindi, Konkani, others). + +The basic C<quant> method that Locale::Maketext provides should be +good for many languages. For some languages, it might be useful +to modify it (or its constituent C<numerate> method) +to take a plural form in the two-argument call to C<quant> +(as in "[quant,_1,files]") if +it's all-around easier to infer the singular form from the plural, than +to infer the plural form from the singular. + +But for other languages (as is discussed at length +in L<Locale::Maketext::TPJ13|Locale::Maketext::TPJ13>), simple +C<quant>/C<numerify> is not enough. For the particularly problematic +Slavic languages, what you may need is a method which you provide +with the number, the citation form of the noun to quantify, and +the case and gender that the sentence's syntax projects onto that +noun slot. The method would then be responsible for determining +what grammatical number that numeral projects onto its noun phrase, +and what case and gender it may override the normal case and gender +with; and then it would look up the noun in a lexicon providing +all needed inflected forms. + +=item * + +You may also wish to discuss with the translators the question of +how to relate different subforms of the same language tag, +considering how this reacts with C<get_handle>'s treatment of +these. For example, if a user accepts interfaces in "en, fr", and +you have interfaces available in "en-US" and "fr", what should +they get? You may wish to resolve this by establishing that "en" +and "en-US" are effectively synonymous, by having one class +zero-derive from the other. + +For some languages this issue may never come up (Danish is rarely +expressed as "da-DK", but instead is just "da"). And for other +languages, the whole concept of a "generic" form may verge on +being uselessly vague, particularly for interfaces involving voice +media in forms of Arabic or Chinese. + +=item * + +Once you've localized your program/site/etc. for all desired +languages, be sure to show the result (whether live, or via +screenshots) to the translators. Once they approve, make every +effort to have it then checked by at least one other speaker of +that language. This holds true even when (or especially when) the +translation is done by one of your own programmers. Some +kinds of systems may be harder to find testers for than others, +depending on the amount of domain-specific jargon and concepts +involved -- it's easier to find people who can tell you whether +they approve of your translation for "delete this message" in an +email-via-Web interface, than to find people who can give you +an informed opinion on your translation for "attribute value" +in an XML query tool's interface. + +=back + +=head1 SEE ALSO + +I recommend reading all of these: + +L<Locale::Maketext::TPJ13|Locale::Maketext::TPJ13> -- my I<The Perl +Journal> article about Maketext. It explains many important concepts +underlying Locale::Maketext's design, and some insight into why +Maketext is better than the plain old approach of having +message catalogs that are just databases of sprintf formats. + +L<File::Findgrep|File::Findgrep> is a sample application/module +that uses Locale::Maketext to localize its messages. For a larger +internationalized system, see also L<Apache::MP3>. + +L<I18N::LangTags|I18N::LangTags>. + +L<Win32::Locale|Win32::Locale>. + +RFC 3066, I<Tags for the Identification of Languages>, +as at http://sunsite.dk/RFC/rfc/rfc3066.html + +RFC 2277, I<IETF Policy on Character Sets and Languages> +is at http://sunsite.dk/RFC/rfc/rfc2277.html -- much of it is +just things of interest to protocol designers, but it explains +some basic concepts, like the distinction between locales and +language-tags. + +The manual for GNU C<gettext>. The gettext dist is available in +C<ftp://prep.ai.mit.edu/pub/gnu/> -- get +a recent gettext tarball and look in its "doc/" directory, there's +an easily browsable HTML version in there. The +gettext documentation asks lots of questions worth thinking +about, even if some of their answers are sometimes wonky, +particularly where they start talking about pluralization. + +The Locale/Maketext.pm source. Obverse that the module is much +shorter than its documentation! + +=head1 COPYRIGHT AND DISCLAIMER + +Copyright (c) 1999-2004 Sean M. Burke. All rights reserved. + +This library is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify +it under the same terms as Perl itself. + +This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but +without any warranty; without even the implied warranty of +merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. + +=head1 AUTHOR + +Sean M. Burke C<sburke@cpan.org> + +=cut |