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+@c -*-texinfo-*-
+@c This is part of the GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual.
+@c Copyright (C) 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc. 
+@c See the file elisp.texi for copying conditions.
+@setfilename ../info/compile
+@node Byte Compilation, Debugging, Loading, Top
+@chapter Byte Compilation
+@cindex byte-code
+@cindex compilation
+
+  GNU Emacs Lisp has a @dfn{compiler} that translates functions written
+in Lisp into a special representation called @dfn{byte-code} that can be
+executed more efficiently.  The compiler replaces Lisp function
+definitions with byte-code.  When a byte-code function is called, its
+definition is evaluated by the @dfn{byte-code interpreter}.
+
+  Because the byte-compiled code is evaluated by the byte-code
+interpreter, instead of being executed directly by the machine's
+hardware (as true compiled code is), byte-code is completely
+transportable from machine to machine without recompilation.  It is not,
+however, as fast as true compiled code.
+
+  In general, any version of Emacs can run byte-compiled code produced
+by recent earlier versions of Emacs, but the reverse is not true.  In
+particular, if you compile a program with Emacs 18, you can run the
+compiled code in Emacs 19, but not vice versa.
+
+  @xref{Compilation Errors}, for how to investigate errors occurring in
+byte compilation.
+
+@menu
+* Compilation Functions::       Byte compilation functions.
+* Eval During Compile::  	Code to be evaluated when you compile.
+* Byte-Code Objects::		The data type used for byte-compiled functions.
+* Disassembly::                 Disassembling byte-code; how to read byte-code.
+@end menu
+
+@node Compilation Functions
+@comment  node-name,  next,  previous,  up
+@section The Compilation Functions
+@cindex compilation functions
+
+  You can byte-compile an individual function or macro definition with
+the @code{byte-compile} function.  You can compile a whole file with
+@code{byte-compile-file}, or several files with
+@code{byte-recompile-directory} or @code{batch-byte-compile}.
+
+  When you run the byte compiler, you may get warnings in a buffer called
+@samp{*Compile-Log*}.  These report usage in your program that suggest a
+problem, but are not necessarily erroneous.
+
+@cindex macro compilation
+  Be careful when byte-compiling code that uses macros.  Macro calls are
+expanded when they are compiled, so the macros must already be defined
+for proper compilation.  For more details, see @ref{Compiling Macros}.
+
+  While byte-compiling a file, any @code{require} calls at top-level are
+executed.  One way to ensure that necessary macro definitions are
+available during compilation is to require the file that defines them.
+@xref{Features}.
+
+  A byte-compiled function is not as efficient as a primitive function
+written in C, but runs much faster than the version written in Lisp.
+For a rough comparison, consider the example below:
+
+@example
+@group
+(defun silly-loop (n)
+  "Return time before and after N iterations of a loop."
+  (let ((t1 (current-time-string)))
+    (while (> (setq n (1- n)) 
+              0))
+    (list t1 (current-time-string))))
+@result{} silly-loop
+@end group
+
+@group
+(silly-loop 100000)
+@result{} ("Thu Jan 12 20:18:38 1989" 
+    "Thu Jan 12 20:19:29 1989")  ; @r{51 seconds}
+@end group
+
+@group
+(byte-compile 'silly-loop)
+@result{} @r{[Compiled code not shown]}
+@end group
+
+@group
+(silly-loop 100000)
+@result{} ("Thu Jan 12 20:21:04 1989" 
+    "Thu Jan 12 20:21:17 1989")  ; @r{13 seconds}
+@end group
+@end example
+
+  In this example, the interpreted code required 51 seconds to run,
+whereas the byte-compiled code required 13 seconds.  These results are
+representative, but actual results will vary greatly.
+
+@defun byte-compile symbol
+  This function byte-compiles the function definition of @var{symbol},
+replacing the previous definition with the compiled one.  The function
+definition of @var{symbol} must be the actual code for the function;
+i.e., the compiler does not follow indirection to another symbol.
+@code{byte-compile} does not compile macros.  @code{byte-compile}
+returns the new, compiled definition of @var{symbol}.
+
+@example
+@group
+(defun factorial (integer)
+  "Compute factorial of INTEGER."
+  (if (= 1 integer) 1
+    (* integer (factorial (1- integer)))))
+     @result{} factorial
+@end group
+
+@group
+(byte-compile 'factorial)
+     @result{}
+#[(integer)
+  "^H\301U\203^H^@@\301\207\302^H\303^HS!\"\207"
+  [integer 1 * factorial]
+  4 "Compute factorial of INTEGER."]
+@end group
+@end example
+
+@noindent
+The result is a compiled function object.  The string it contains is the
+actual byte-code; each character in it is an instruction.  The vector
+contains all the constants, variable names and function names used by
+the function, except for certain primitives that are coded as special
+instructions.
+@end defun
+
+@deffn Command compile-defun
+This command reads the defun containing point, compiles it, and
+evaluates the result.  If you use this on a defun that is actually a
+function definition, the effect is to install a compiled version of that
+function.
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn Command byte-compile-file filename
+  This function compiles a file of Lisp code named @var{filename} into
+a file of byte-code.  The output file's name is made by appending
+@samp{c} to the end of @var{filename}.
+
+  Compilation works by reading the input file one form at a time.  If it
+is a definition of a function or macro, the compiled function or macro
+definition is written out.  Other forms are batched together, then each
+batch is compiled, and written so that its compiled code will be
+executed when the file is read.  All comments are discarded when the
+input file is read.
+
+  This command returns @code{t}.  When called interactively, it prompts
+for the file name.
+
+@example
+@group
+% ls -l push*
+-rw-r--r--  1 lewis     791 Oct  5 20:31 push.el
+@end group
+
+@group
+(byte-compile-file "~/emacs/push.el")
+     @result{} t
+@end group
+
+@group
+% ls -l push*
+-rw-r--r--  1 lewis     791 Oct  5 20:31 push.el
+-rw-rw-rw-  1 lewis     638 Oct  8 20:25 push.elc
+@end group
+@end example
+@end deffn
+
+@deffn Command byte-recompile-directory directory flag
+@cindex library compilation
+  This function recompiles every @samp{.el} file in @var{directory} that
+needs recompilation.  A file needs recompilation if a @samp{.elc} file
+exists but is older than the @samp{.el} file.
+
+  If a @samp{.el} file exists, but there is no corresponding @samp{.elc}
+file, then @var{flag} is examined.  If it is @code{nil}, the file is
+ignored.  If it is non-@code{nil}, the user is asked whether the file
+should be compiled.
+
+  The returned value of this command is unpredictable.
+@end deffn
+
+@defun batch-byte-compile
+  This function runs @code{byte-compile-file} on the files remaining on
+the command line.  This function must be used only in a batch execution
+of Emacs, as it kills Emacs on completion.  An error in one file does
+not prevent processing of subsequent files.  (The file which gets the
+error will not, of course, produce any compiled code.)
+
+@example
+% emacs -batch -f batch-byte-compile *.el
+@end example
+@end defun
+
+@defun byte-code code-string data-vector max-stack
+@cindex byte-code interpreter
+  This function actually interprets byte-code.  A byte-compiled function
+is actually defined with a body that calls @code{byte-code}.  Don't call
+this function yourself.  Only the byte compiler knows how to generate
+valid calls to this function.
+
+  In newer Emacs versions (19 and up), byte-code is usually executed as
+part of a compiled function object, and only rarely as part of a call to
+@code{byte-code}.
+@end defun
+
+@node Eval During Compile
+@section Evaluation During Compilation
+
+These features permit you to write code to be evaluated during
+compilation of a program.
+
+@defspec eval-and-compile body
+This form marks @var{body} to be evaluated both when you compile the
+containing code and when you run it (whether compiled or not).
+
+You can get a similar result by putting @var{body} in a separate file
+and referring to that file with @code{require}.  Using @code{require} is
+preferable if there is a substantial amount of code to be executed in
+this way.
+@end defspec
+
+@defspec eval-when-compile body
+This form marks @var{body} to be evaluated at compile time @emph{only}.
+The result of evaluation by the compiler becomes a constant which
+appears in the compiled program.  When the program is interpreted, not
+compiled at all, @var{body} is evaluated normally.
+
+At top-level, this is analogous to the Common Lisp idiom
+@code{(eval-when (compile eval) @dots{})}.  Elsewhere, the Common Lisp
+@samp{#.} reader macro (but not when interpreting) is closer to what
+@code{eval-when-compile} does.
+@end defspec
+
+@node Byte-Code Objects
+@section Byte-Code Objects
+@cindex compiled function
+@cindex byte-code function
+
+  Byte-compiled functions have a special data type: they are
+@dfn{byte-code function objects}.
+
+  Internally, a byte-code function object is much like a vector;
+however, the evaluator handles this data type specially when it appears
+as a function to be called.  The printed representation for a byte-code
+function object is like that for a vector, with an additional @samp{#}
+before the opening @samp{[}.
+
+  In Emacs version 18, there was no byte-code function object data type;
+compiled functions used the function @code{byte-code} to run the byte
+code.
+
+  A byte-code function object must have at least four elements; there is
+no maximum number, but only the first six elements are actually used.
+They are:
+
+@table @var
+@item arglist
+The list of argument symbols.
+
+@item byte-code
+The string containing the byte-code instructions.
+
+@item constants
+The vector of constants referenced by the byte code.
+
+@item stacksize
+The maximum stack size this function needs.
+
+@item docstring
+The documentation string (if any); otherwise, @code{nil}.  For functions
+preloaded before Emacs is dumped, this is usually an integer which is an
+index into the @file{DOC} file; use @code{documentation} to convert this
+into a string (@pxref{Accessing Documentation}).
+
+@item interactive
+The interactive spec (if any).  This can be a string or a Lisp
+expression.  It is @code{nil} for a function that isn't interactive.
+@end table
+
+Here's an example of a byte-code function object, in printed
+representation.  It is the definition of the command
+@code{backward-sexp}.
+
+@example
+#[(&optional arg)
+  "^H\204^F^@@\301^P\302^H[!\207"
+  [arg 1 forward-sexp]
+  2
+  254435
+  "p"]
+@end example
+
+  The primitive way to create a byte-code object is with
+@code{make-byte-code}:
+
+@defun make-byte-code &rest elements
+This function constructs and returns a byte-code function object
+with @var{elements} as its elements.
+@end defun
+
+  You should not try to come up with the elements for a byte-code function
+yourself, because if they are inconsistent, Emacs may crash when you
+call the function.  Always leave it to the byte-compiler to create these
+objects; it, we hope, always makes the elements consistent.
+
+  You can access the elements of a byte-code object using @code{aref};
+you can also use @code{vconcat} to create a vector with the same
+elements.
+
+@node Disassembly
+@section Disassembled Byte-Code
+@cindex disassembled byte-code
+
+  People do not write byte-code; that job is left to the byte compiler.
+But we provide a disassembler to satisfy a cat-like curiosity.  The
+disassembler converts the byte-compiled code into humanly readable
+form.
+
+  The byte-code interpreter is implemented as a simple stack machine.
+Values get stored by being pushed onto the stack, and are popped off and
+manipulated, the results being pushed back onto the stack.  When a
+function returns, the top of the stack is popped and returned as the
+value of the function.
+
+  In addition to the stack, values used during byte-code execution can
+be stored in ordinary Lisp variables.  Variable values can be pushed
+onto the stack, and variables can be set by popping the stack.
+
+@deffn Command disassemble object &optional stream
+This function prints the disassembled code for @var{object}.  If
+@var{stream} is supplied, then output goes there.  Otherwise, the
+disassembled code is printed to the stream @code{standard-output}.  The
+argument @var{object} can be a function name or a lambda expression.
+
+As a special exception, if this function is used interactively,
+it outputs to a buffer named @samp{*Disassemble*}.
+@end deffn
+
+  Here are two examples of using the @code{disassemble} function.  We
+have added explanatory comments to help you relate the byte-code to the
+Lisp source; these do not appear in the output of @code{disassemble}.
+These examples show unoptimized byte-code.  Nowadays byte-code is
+usually optimized, but we did not want to rewrite these examples, since
+they still serve their purpose.
+
+@example
+@group
+(defun factorial (integer)
+  "Compute factorial of an integer."
+  (if (= 1 integer) 1
+    (* integer (factorial (1- integer)))))
+     @result{} factorial
+@end group
+
+@group
+(factorial 4)
+     @result{} 24
+@end group
+
+@group
+(disassemble 'factorial)
+     @print{} byte-code for factorial:
+ doc: Compute factorial of an integer.
+ args: (integer)
+@end group
+
+@group
+0   constant 1              ; @r{Push 1 onto stack.}
+
+1   varref   integer        ; @r{Get value of @code{integer}} 
+                            ;   @r{from the environment}
+                            ;   @r{and push the value}
+                            ;   @r{onto the stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+2   eqlsign                 ; @r{Pop top two values off stack,}
+                            ;   @r{compare them,}
+                            ;   @r{and push result onto stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+3   goto-if-nil 10          ; @r{Pop and test top of stack;}
+                            ;   @r{if @code{nil}, go to 10,}
+                            ;   @r{else continue.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+6   constant 1              ; @r{Push 1 onto top of stack.}
+
+7   goto     17             ; @r{Go to 17 (in this case, 1 will be}
+                            ;   @r{returned by the function).}
+@end group
+
+@group
+10  constant *              ; @r{Push symbol @code{*} onto stack.}
+
+11  varref   integer        ; @r{Push value of @code{integer} onto stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+12  constant factorial      ; @r{Push @code{factorial} onto stack.}
+
+13  varref   integer        ; @r{Push value of @code{integer} onto stack.}
+
+14  sub1                    ; @r{Pop @code{integer}, decrement value,}
+                            ;   @r{push new value onto stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+                            ; @r{Stack now contains:}
+                            ;   @minus{} @r{decremented value of @code{integer}}
+                            ;   @minus{} @r{@code{factorial}} 
+                            ;   @minus{} @r{value of @code{integer}}
+                            ;   @minus{} @r{@code{*}}
+@end group
+
+@group
+15  call     1              ; @r{Call function @code{factorial} using}
+                            ;   @r{the first (i.e., the top) element}
+                            ;   @r{of the stack as the argument;}
+                            ;   @r{push returned value onto stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+                            ; @r{Stack now contains:}
+                            ;   @minus{} @r{result of result of recursive}
+                            ;        @r{call to @code{factorial}}
+                            ;   @minus{} @r{value of @code{integer}}
+                            ;   @minus{} @r{@code{*}}
+@end group
+
+@group
+16  call     2              ; @r{Using the first two}
+                            ;   @r{(i.e., the top two)}
+                            ;   @r{elements of the stack}
+                            ;   @r{as arguments,}
+                            ;   @r{call the function @code{*},}
+                            ;   @r{pushing the result onto the stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+17  return                  ; @r{Return the top element}
+                            ;   @r{of the stack.}
+     @result{} nil
+@end group
+@end example
+
+The @code{silly-loop} function is somewhat more complex:
+
+@example
+@group
+(defun silly-loop (n)
+  "Return time before and after N iterations of a loop."
+  (let ((t1 (current-time-string)))
+    (while (> (setq n (1- n)) 
+              0))
+    (list t1 (current-time-string))))
+     @result{} silly-loop
+@end group
+
+@group
+(disassemble 'silly-loop)
+     @print{} byte-code for silly-loop:
+ doc: Return time before and after N iterations of a loop.
+ args: (n)
+
+0   constant current-time-string  ; @r{Push}
+                                  ;   @r{@code{current-time-string}}
+                                  ;   @r{onto top of stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+1   call     0              ; @r{Call @code{current-time-string}}
+                            ;   @r{ with no argument,}
+                            ;   @r{ pushing result onto stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+2   varbind  t1             ; @r{Pop stack and bind @code{t1}}
+                            ;   @r{to popped value.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+3   varref   n              ; @r{Get value of @code{n} from}
+                            ;   @r{the environment and push}
+                            ;   @r{the value onto the stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+4   sub1                    ; @r{Subtract 1 from top of stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+5   dup                     ; @r{Duplicate the top of the stack;}
+                            ;   @r{i.e. copy the top of}
+                            ;   @r{the stack and push the}
+                            ;   @r{copy onto the stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+6   varset   n              ; @r{Pop the top of the stack,}
+                            ;   @r{and bind @code{n} to the value.}
+
+                            ; @r{In effect, the sequence @code{dup varset}}
+                            ;   @r{copies the top of the stack}
+                            ;   @r{into the value of @code{n}}
+                            ;   @r{without popping it.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+7   constant 0              ; @r{Push 0 onto stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+8   gtr                     ; @r{Pop top two values off stack,}
+                            ;   @r{test if @var{n} is greater than 0}
+                            ;   @r{and push result onto stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+9   goto-if-nil-else-pop 17 ; @r{Goto 17 if @code{n} > 0}
+                            ;   @r{else pop top of stack}
+                            ;   @r{and continue}
+                            ;   @r{(this exits the while loop).}
+@end group
+
+@group
+12  constant nil            ; @r{Push @code{nil} onto stack}
+                            ;   @r{(this is the body of the loop).}
+@end group
+
+@group
+13  discard                 ; @r{Discard result of the body}
+                            ;   @r{of the loop (a while loop}
+                            ;   @r{is always evaluated for}
+                            ;   @r{its side effects).}
+@end group
+
+@group
+14  goto     3              ; @r{Jump back to beginning}
+                            ;   @r{of while loop.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+17  discard                 ; @r{Discard result of while loop}
+                            ;   @r{by popping top of stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+18  varref   t1             ; @r{Push value of @code{t1} onto stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+19  constant current-time-string  ; @r{Push} 
+                                  ;   @r{@code{current-time-string}}
+                                  ;   @r{onto top of stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+20  call     0              ; @r{Call @code{current-time-string} again.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+21  list2                   ; @r{Pop top two elements off stack,}
+                            ;   @r{create a list of them,}
+                            ;   @r{and push list onto stack.}
+@end group
+
+@group
+22  unbind   1              ; @r{Unbind @code{t1} in local environment.}
+
+23  return                  ; @r{Return value of the top of stack.}
+
+     @result{} nil
+@end group
+@end example
+
+